Airborne Express

Free Essays on Disorders

Disorders As a college student at times I feel overwhelmed with all that needs to be done in order to graduate. I get depressed and say to myself time and time again â€Å"You’re not going to make it.† The reason for this is I don’t think I am able to pass the entire math I need to in order to obtain my degree. At times I isolate myself from others and my loved ones because I am depressed about what the future holds for me. This seems to make me on edge more then usual. I have a hard time getting up and getting my day started. At times it seems like me against the world and I am losing a battle. The experts say that depression is the â€Å"common cold† of mental disorder. Well I believe this is inaccurate. The common cold can go away but a mental disorder stays with you. I believe it stays with you at all times it may fade out but it is always there. It’s like waiting to come out at your next breaking point or your next emotional break-down. Today there are a lot of people that take for granted their mental capacity. They may think it may not happen to you but it could. It could come at a lost one close to you, a stressful time in your life, and it could come because a fear of something could happen to you or has happened to you. A molested person may have a disorder that their brain drives them to cling to the abuser or may cause them to hate the same sex that molested them. This is a mental disorder. It affects your brain in a way that some people may not be able to understand. Experts also say that there is something missing in the brain that makes people who attract the same sex partner’s different from others. Maybe it’s not missing but corrupted because of all the years of abuse or that the one time the abuse happened it weighs on them so bad it affects one’s judgment. There are a lot of mental disorder diseases that effect people in different ways then others. It could affect them ... Free Essays on Disorders Free Essays on Disorders Disorders As a college student at times I feel overwhelmed with all that needs to be done in order to graduate. I get depressed and say to myself time and time again â€Å"You’re not going to make it.† The reason for this is I don’t think I am able to pass the entire math I need to in order to obtain my degree. At times I isolate myself from others and my loved ones because I am depressed about what the future holds for me. This seems to make me on edge more then usual. I have a hard time getting up and getting my day started. At times it seems like me against the world and I am losing a battle. The experts say that depression is the â€Å"common cold† of mental disorder. Well I believe this is inaccurate. The common cold can go away but a mental disorder stays with you. I believe it stays with you at all times it may fade out but it is always there. It’s like waiting to come out at your next breaking point or your next emotional break-down. Today there are a lot of people that take for granted their mental capacity. They may think it may not happen to you but it could. It could come at a lost one close to you, a stressful time in your life, and it could come because a fear of something could happen to you or has happened to you. A molested person may have a disorder that their brain drives them to cling to the abuser or may cause them to hate the same sex that molested them. This is a mental disorder. It affects your brain in a way that some people may not be able to understand. Experts also say that there is something missing in the brain that makes people who attract the same sex partner’s different from others. Maybe it’s not missing but corrupted because of all the years of abuse or that the one time the abuse happened it weighs on them so bad it affects one’s judgment. There are a lot of mental disorder diseases that effect people in different ways then others. It could affect them ...

An Exploration of Cultural Differences in Perceptions of and Responses Dissertation

An Exploration of Cultural Differences in Perceptions of and Responses to Sexual Harassment in a Title One High School - Dissertation Example In the current research participants from grades 7 through 11 were studied using a phenomenological approach to understand their perception and response to sexual harassment and correlate this with their cultural background. Interview and observation were used as tools for data collection. An Exploration of Cultural Differences in Perceptions of and Responses to Sexual Harassment in a Title One High School Introduction Sexual harassment (SH) is a gender based phenomenon of extreme concern affecting the present and future life of many young students of either sex throughout the world (Rahimi & Liston, 2011). In U.S. SH in middle and high school has been of common occurrence with almost half (48%) of students confirming to have experienced some form of sexual harassment in a 2011 survey, with approximately 87% admitting that it has an adverse impact on them. This comes as surprise since SH in schools has been infrequently reported (Hill & Kearl, 2011). Sexual harassment, a term origina lly coined with reference to workplace behavior has also come to include incidences in school. In school it refers to sexual conduct that negatively affects students’ academic interests. ... Girls are more frequently a target compared to boys (56% against 40%), with their experiences being more physical and intrusive compared to that of boys (Hand & Sanchez, 2001). Most harassers belong to peer with lesser number of incidences involving school staff (Eckes, 2006). In 1980, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) recognized two forms of actionable SH; the quid pro quo harassment and the hostile environment harassment. The former refers to threat or assurance of consequences due to forbidding or offering of sexual favors. These favors may be demanded explicitly or implicitly and must involve substantial consequences. On the other hand hostile environment type of sexual environment refers to the work or school environment becoming totally offensive or difficult as a consequence of sexual overtures, conduct or physical gestures. In either case the environment is uncomfortable and unsuitable for pursue individual goals (Zimbroff, 2007). Legal provisions dealing wit h SH in schools are provided by the Title IX, the Education Amendments, passed by the Congress in 1972. The act states that ‘no person in Unites States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving financial assistance (p1681)’. The law also addresses peer-on-peer sexual harassment and considers it as a discrimination occurring in school premises and during school hours thus rendering it as a suitable cause of action against school authorities (DeSouza & Solberg, 2003). There have been several controversies and confusions with respect to legal definitions of perceptions of hostility and psychological harm that renders a SH case as

Why Mesopotamia deserves to be called a civilization Essay - 1

Why Mesopotamia deserves to be called a civilization - Essay Example This paper aims to look at all the factors that are successful in calling the cradle of activity in Mesopotamia as a civilization and how the various economic, social and political aspects of life in Mesopotamia come into play when looking at the model. In order to constitute a civilization, a well-knit combination of the following factors must be present. They are – a socially well structured community with an urban environment as well as a rural environment with intensive agricultural activities being able to support the population at large; proper division of labor; a market economy with or without trade of some kind sustaining livelihoods of many; a structured form of a government regulating the activities taking place in the area; defined territories; written laws; a powerful establishment of the military; intrinsic support towards arts and culture constituting creativity in both the work as well as the leisure part of life; a culture with a written language system. These are some of the very important aspects that a civilization constitutes and as we discuss these factors throughout the scope of this paper, we may come across a few more aspects of life that are enough to term Mesopotamia as a proper civilization and a lap of rich culture. (Duiker, W., and J. Spielgovel, p. 7) In order to constitute a civilization, firstly, a culture requires a population that may have migrated from various parts of the world but is living together at the time of the civilization being formed in a large well-structured community. A population of more than 5000 people at the time assisted in establishing the Mesopotamian civilization and at the time, almost 5000 years ago, this number seemed to be a lot more than the value it holds today. With such a vast population at the time, it was believed that a number of problems would be faced

The Era of Renaissance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Era of Renaissance - Essay Example The spiritual content of painting changed where subjects from Roman history and mythology were borrowed. Devotional art of Christian orientation became classically humanized. The classical artistic principles, sensible expressions including harmonious parts as well as logical postures of Greek and Roman Artistry were adopted by Italian artist during this period. The rebirth of art in Italy was associated with the rediscovery of ancient philosophy, literature, and science and the growth of practical methods of study in these fields, consequentially the subject matter relative to Greek and Roman history and mythology is usually injected as the core theme of almost all artistic masterpieces at this time. Art became respected as a means for religious and social teaching, and a form of personal, visual expression. Both Italian renaissance and classic antiquity utilized human form as their subject but the prevalence of vibrant color and boldness was more depicted in the Italian renaissance art. Although much of the influence at this time was borrowed from the classic antiquities, what sets this era apart is the uniqueness brought about from blending the old and the new concepts. While it is true that the artistic talents of the Italian painters were made possible through the influences of many Greek artist who fled to Florence to seek refuge after the downfall of Constantinople, the improvements and modern touch of art depicted in most masterpieces during this time was mostly because of the imaginative perspectives of the artist honed and further developed through the newly acquired contemporary ideas and skills from Greek and Romans (Hunt. pg. 507). Where as the classical antiquity was confined to walls of catacombs, the Italian renaissance art were revered by many in many great cathedral ceilings, and although depicting heavenly subjects, realistic stories were conveyed even including the characteristic improvement of human form which the Greeks did not have in the ir style. The distinction and improvement of the depiction of the human form in the classic antiquity and Italian renaissance art is also quiet evident in the manner with which the Italian sculptures utilizes the S shape curve which is a characteristic feature where figures are described as emotionally restrained, graceful, elongated with delicate features. Sculpture further developed with the increasing accuracy of the human body. Idealized figures with the classic tradition of heroic nudity are commonly depicted (Hunt. pg.513). In the aspect of educational system, books and paintings contained many of the same stylistic qualities where manuscripts grew in demand as a form of social standard for those few literate where illustration figures are shown also in the S-shaped curve and are usually elongated with the modeling of garments to show volume (Hunt. pg.509). Where as printing is the new form of keeping annals of history as suppose to the old norms of classic antiquities which requires several scribed to hand write the pertinent information, both Greece and Italy were similar in the sense that there is an immense need to improve intellect during this time. They differ in the sense that while it takes time to handwrite the information this requiring more time to transmit information, this is greatly improve with the introduction of paper and

Psychological Changes in Adolescence

Psychological Changes in Adolescence Adolescence is a term usually used to describe transitional period or a passage from childhood to adulthood and in todays context seem to be distinguished by 2 distinct stages: the puberty and transition to adulthood. Todays adolescence seem to be particularly vulnerable because, in addition to physical and psychological changes that an individual goes through, young people are subjected to rapid changes in society and multicultural influences; not the least because of advancement in technology, demography and demands of both, the knowledge and achievement. This is particularly relevant to more advanced, western societies. An early thought in psychoanalysis led by Miller 1950 (cited in Briggs 2008) suggested that adolescence is the age between characterised by puberty (physical changes), mid adolescence (short period of opposition to authority) and late adolescence (leaving the school and becoming an adult). However, the changes occurred post that period exposed a gap in experiences, raising a need for further exploration. These influential changes are reflected in the finding that late adolescence and the transition to adulthood extended considerably in regards to previous assumptions (Briggs 2008). Todays view contradicts that of Miller and alike in understanding that adolescence stretches into mid to late twenties as opposed to teenage years. Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that those who accomplish the transition early, at the end of teenage years, may be disadvantaged and at increased risk of social exclusion (Briggs 2008). On the other hand, the onset of puberty itself has changed little for the last fifty years. Contemporary understanding of adolescence also raises the issue of its complexity, sparking the wide debate on accurateness of its earlier description, deepened further by discussion whether there is a need for early intervention. This latter debate divided the community of professionals into two major groups: interventionists and non-interventionists. The interventionists argue that the adolescence is the time of great uncertainty and changes making this group particularly vulnerable; if left unattended, it could influence development itself, educational achievement and the difficulties could persist into the adulthood. The support for interventionists view comes from recent studies that show that most of disorders found in adults, begun in adolescence between the ages of 12 and 24, even though they may not be noticed until the adulthood (Briggs 2008). On the other side we have non-interventionists who believe that the time of stress and turmoil would pass with time and intervention is unnecessary (Briggs 2008). However, there seem to be general consensus within the psychoanalytic world that the adolescents are vulnerable and exposed to risks of anti-social behaviour, a high risk of offending, substance misuse, eating disorders, depression, suicide and inappropriate sexual behaviour. Although these risk factors are present even within the normal development in adolescence for the minority of adolescents, if untreated, it can persist into adulthood. In adolescence, the changes in physique are also accompanied by increased societal demands for conformity, change of school, increased academic demand and so on; therefore this is the period of uncertainty and anxiety. While the majority of adolescents navigate through these changes successfully, for significant minority this period is turbulent and stressful. Individual differences in terms of inner resources to deal with these transitional issues lie within the relationship with adults. These relationships are rooted in the early childhood and could act as determinants of successful or unsuccessful transition. From psychoanalytic point of view, adolescence is the time of powerful changes not only physically, but accompanied by surge of instincts and urges demanding powerful control. In order to examine these inner processes of change we will look into adolescence through two distinct phases: the puberty and the transition to adulthood. The puberty is characterised by changes in physical development and growth spurt. Growth spur describes faster growth rate in weight and height, where girls are noted to enter the growth spur around the age of 10, typically reaching its peak at the age of 12, and more steady growth rate at the age of 13. On the other hand, boys begin the growth spur at around the age of 13 and peak at the age of 14, achieving more stabilized growth rate at the age of 16. In addition to becoming taller and heavier, both sexes assume adult like appearance, with girls growing breasts, widening of hips and for boys broadening of shoulders. Facial features also change in such way that the forehead protrudes while the jaw and the nose become more prominent (Shaffer, Kipp 2006). The puberty is also characterised by sexual maturation, which is quite different in boys and girls. With girls, sexual maturation starts somewhat earlier (before the age of 10) with formation of breast buds, followed by the appearance of pubic hair. With entering the growth spur, the breasts grow faster and sexual organs (vagina and uterus) begin to mature taking adult like forms in its readiness for future motherhood. At around age 12 the girl enters menarche, the time of the first menstruation (Shaffer, Kipp 2006). For boys, sexual maturation starts later at around age of 11 with an enlargement of testes, followed by appearance of pubic hair and penis enlargement. At around age of 13 the production of spermatozoa occurs and ejaculation follows. By the age of 15 most boys would have achieved sexual maturity, rendering them capable of becoming fathers. Somewhat later, facial hair grows and voice changes (Shaffer 2006). It is important to mention that although literature describing puberty varies, in terms of onset, there seem to be general consensus that the earlier growth spur occurs the more dramatic changes become. This seems to be applicable to both sexes. Adolescent physical development is accompanied by many psychological changes. Some of the more obvious psychological changes in adolescence are reflected in growing concern for physical appearance. Girls in particular become more concern with looking pretty and how other people would respond to them, with a hope that they would be seen as attractive. Girls that develop at different pace to the perceived norm are prone to internalising a negative body image. Their reaction to menarche is mixed; they are often excited and confused, especially if they were not told what to expect. On the other hand boys are more likely to welcome body weight in hope that they would become tall, hairy and handsome. What they have in common is preoccupation with physical appearance and mixed feelings about sexual maturity ( Shaffer, Kipp 2006). The sexual maturation and adult like appearance are accompanied by eruption of infantile feelings and a crisis of separating from childhood ways of relating to parents (Blos 1967 cited in Briggs 2008). The prospect of possible parenthood causes identification with the same sex parent, the process called oedipal stage. Sexual urges and passions are revived and the desire for the affection of the opposite sex parent results in unconscious competition for that affection. These urges were present in infancy, however, now they are accompanied by the real possibility of achievement, thus becoming a conflict and destabilising (Briggs 2008). These re-emerging passions and urges demand reconsideration of the relationship with parents and a new dimension of these relationships. Psychoanalytic perspective explain these changes as both, liberating and frightening experience, opening doors to vulnerability and anxiety and developing sense of power. It is also, according to psychoanalytic view, accompanied by identification, separation and loss of childhood relationships (Briggs 2008). These new states of anxiety, vulnerability and power are significant in adolescent development and require particular attention. From the psychoanalytic perspective the adolescence is turbulent because of these new states, which greatly contradicts more common psychological and social perspective that emphasises smooth process of adolescence (Briggs 2008). It is suggested that these turbulent aspects are forgotten and disowned and then projected onto adolescents by adults who do not wish to remind selves on the turbulence once they encountered (Briggs 2008). It is also suggested that the period of adolescence is often idealised or alternatively projected as miserable. Jacobs (1990 cited in Briggs 2008) explains this split as two different stages of adolescence where early adolescence is characterised by misery and turbulence, while the late adolescence is marked by the sense of accomplishments and smooth transition. Briggs demonstrated this idea through the case of Maria, 21 year old self-referred patient. While Maria passed through the teenage years without much of a struggle and in concordance with her parents, at the age of 21, when she achieved financial independence and established professional life, Maria seemed uncertain of her identity, questioning her capacity to be independent in expressing her own opinion. In addition to these observations, it is important not to overlook other influences on the development of adolescence, such as changes that occur in the brain. The understanding of adolescent development has altered taking into consideration of deeper knowledge of neurological changes that take place during this time. According to neuroscience, some of the adolescent behaviour may have its roots in neurological causes. The findings suggest that cognitive abilities needed for mature behaviour are underdeveloped in adolescence. The changes that occur in the brain during the adolescence have effect on regulation, learning and memory. Stressful experiences may have adverse outcomes on brain development, increasing susceptibility to psychopathologies. Advocating enhancement of social and learning environment, the neuroscience suggests that the adverse outcomes could be significantly reduced, even reversed (Briggs 2008). In summary, the biological perspective deepens our understanding of adolescence in a way that indicates the greater need for an integrated approach linking internal, biological, psychological and environmental aspects of adolescent experience. (Briggs 2008). This is to say that the development of the brain increases ability to control behaviour but, the successful execution of that control needs to be facilitated by environmental factors such as stable and supportive relationship with parents. If the environment is filled with adversities, the stress of adolescence could become pathological and in need of an intervention. So far we have discussed biological perspective in conjunction with psychoanalytic view, however it was emphasised that social factors could benefit or damage the normal development of adolescence. This concept of influence of the social context on adolescence is called psychosocial perspective. Some societies mark adolescence with the rite of passage, in western societies this rite of passage does not seem to be either marked or acknowledged. Besides, with extended adolescence the psycho-social context becomes ever more complex. In todays society there is disparage between biological and psychological maturation and transition to adulthood. Patton and Viner ( 2007 cited in Briggs 2008) found this disparage particularly present in the developed world of western societies stating: the development of reproductive capacity and sexual activity precede role transition into parenthood and marriage by more than a decade (p11). This disparage is significant in the way that increases risk and vulnerability of adolescents. In helping a better understanding of this disparage, psychoanalysis relies on the theory of psychosocial development by Erikson. Erikson provided and extension to original model of 5 stages of development described by Freud in a way that accommodated this latency in adolescence by introducing a concept of psychosocial moratorium. The focal point for Erikson is adolescence and the creation of personal identity. The crisis arising during this phase is identity versus role confusion (Papalia and Wendoks-Okds, 1978; Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum 2004). He argued that adolescents are going through many physical, cognitive, and social changes, associated with puberty, and often become confused undermining their self- esteem .This in turn can lead to a psychosocial moratorium, a temporary suspension of activity. According to this theory, the most important task for adolescents involves achieving a conscious sense of individual uniqueness. This means to discover who am I?, and in doing so ado lescents must make some occupational choices or they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults (Gross 2005; Papalia and Wendoks-Okds, 1978; Shaffer and Kipp 2006). Erikson goes one-step further to identify four kinds of behaviour linked to identity confusion: Negative Identity (which relates to criminal and anti social behaviour as a sense of control and independence from others); Intimacy (which refers to avoidance from fear of losing own fragile sense of identity, often resulting in isolation); The Perspective (which relates to avoidance of planning the future because, doing so means thinking about ramifications of adulthood and evoking anxiety) and Industry (which relates to difficulty in striking a balance, thus results in inability to concentrate) (Cardwell, Clark and Meldrum 2004). The premise for the reformatting was that adolescents identity creation involves crisis and commitment; Crisis occurs through having to re-evaluate previous choices and values, while commitment occurs when the individual takes on a set of roles and beliefs (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum 2004) The moratorium could create additional tension and inner conflict which in turn are met by either by repression or foreclosure . Repression simply is the unwilling yet continued deferment that simply creates more anxiety. Anxiety can turn into development of antisocial behaviour, delinquency, inappropriate sexual behaviour or more severe self-destructive behaviour (e.g suicide, self-harm). Under such a challenge, the experience is one of a split of self images, a loss of center, and a dispersion (Erikson, 1968). These symptoms and the experience of the self as disrupted have been described as the dark and negative side of identity formation, and they are viewed as vital to the identity process (Erikson, 1975). Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person.   At this point, development now depends primarily upon what a person does.   An adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and fitting in, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong. Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium).   Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval.   Adolescents begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends. Description: At this stage, adolescents are in search of an identity that will lead themto adulthood. Adolescents make a strong effort to answer the question Whoam I? Erikson notes the healthy resolution of earlier conflicts can nowserve as a foundation for the search for an identity. If the child overcomesearlier conflicts they are prepared to search for identity. Did they develop thebasic sense of trust? Do they have a strong sense of industry to believe inthemselves? Elements for a positive outcome: The adolescent must make a conscious search for identity. This is built onthe outcome and resolution to conflict in earlier stages. Elements for a negative outcome: If the adolescent can not make deliberate decisions and choices, especiallyabout vocation, sexual orientation, and life in general, role confusion becomesa threat. Examples: Adolescents attempt to establish their own identities and see themselves asseparate from their parents. Age: Adolescence 12 to 18 years Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion Important Event: Peer relationships The most important question asked at this stage is who am I? The major event at this stage is peer relationships. This encompasses the middle school, high school, and even college years where one is trying to figure out where there niche is. What type of person are they? Even though their parents believe in abortionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦do they? What do they want as a career? Do they believe in Godà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦do they want to use that to attach labels to themselves as religious or atheist? Erik Erikson was one of these outcasts. He agreed with Freud that development proceeds through a series of critical stages. But he believed the stages were psychosocial, not psychosexual. Erikson also argued that lifes developmental stages encompass the whole life span According to Erikson, a crisis is equivalent to a turning point in life, where there is the opportunity to progress or regress. At these turning points, a person can either resolve conflicts or fail to adequately resolve the developmental task. Delving further into these differences, Erikson contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task. Young children wrestle with issues of trust, then autonomy, then initiative. School-age children develop competence, the sense that they are able and productive human beings. In adolescence, the task is to synthesize past, present, and future possibilities into a clearer sense of self. Adolescents wonder: Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in? Erikson calls this quest to more deeply define a sense of self the adolescents search for identity. To refine their sense of identity, adolescents usually try out different selves in different situations perhaps acting out one self at home, another with friends and still another at school and work. If two of these situations overlap like when a teenager brings a friend home from school the discomfort can be considerable. The teen may ask, Which self is the real me? Which self should I be? Often, this role confusion gets resolved by the gradual reshaping of a self-definition that unifies the various selves into a consistent and comfortable sense of who one is an identity. But not always, Erikson believes that some adolescents forge their identity early, simply by taking on their parents values and expectations. Others may adopt a negative identity that defines itself in opposition to parents and society but in conformity with a particular peer group, complete perhaps with the shaved head or multi-colored coif. Still others never quite seem to find themselves or to develop strong commitments. For most, the struggle for identity continues past the teen years and reappears at turning points during adult life. During the first social stage, trust versus mistrust, an infants basic task is to develop a sense of trust in self, others, and the world. The infant needs to count on others and develop a sense of acceptance and security. This sense of trust is learned by being caressed and cared for. From Eriksons viewpoint, if the significant others in an infants life provide the necessary love, the infant develops a sense of trust. When love is absent, the result is a general sense of mistrust in others. Clearly, infants who feel accepted are in a more favorable position to successfully meet future developmental crises than are those who do not receive adequate nurturing. However, Erikson postulates that since development is a ongoing lifelong process, personality is not fixed at any given time. Events, circumstances, and social relationships are dynamic and changing. Thus, even a child who emerged from the first stage of life with a strong sense of trust may become mistrustful and cynical if bet rayed in later social relationships. Hence, personality is not viewed as fixed by the fifth year of life, as Freud believed, but remains fluid throughout the life span. Between the ages of one and three (Freuds anal stage), children are developing a growing sense of control over their lives. They can now walk, run, climb, and get into all sorts of mischief. A sense of autonomy develops as they learn new skills and achieve a feeling of control over their environment. Thus Eriksons titles this stage Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. During this period, some parents, out of concern or impatience with their childrens progress may intervene and do things that the children should be doing by themselves. Other parents may demand a level of competence of which their children are not yet physically and/or emotionally capable. In either case, these children begin to doubt their own abilities and feel ashamed when they fail to live up to parental expectations. Children who fail to master the tasks of establishing some control over themselves and coping with the world around them develop a sense of shame and feelings of doubt about their capabilities During the next stage, Initiative versus Guilt, which takes place during the preschool years (ages 4 to 6 Freuds phallic stage), children seek to find out how much they can do. According to Erikson, the basic task of preschool years is to establish a sense of competence and initiative. Preschool children begin to initiate many of their own activities as they become physically and psychologically ready to engage in pursuits of their own choosing. If they are allowed realistic freedom to choose their own activities and make some of their own decisions, they tend to develop a positive orientation characterized by confidence to initiate actions and follow through on them. On the other hand, if they are unduly restricted, or if their choices are ridiculed, they tend to experience a sense of guilt and ultimately withdraw from taking an active and initiating stance. By the age of six, the child should enter elementary school. It is during this age that the stage of Industry versus Inferiority occurs. During the ensuing five years, the most important events in the childs life revolve around setting and accomplishing goals related to school situations. When children are successful in mastering the many behaviors expected of them during these years, they develop feelings of competency and a sense of industry. They may express such feelings as: I can do anything if I just work hard enough. Children who encounter failure during the early grades may experience severe handicaps later on. A child with learning problems may begin to feel like a worthless person. Such feelings may drastically affect his or her relationships with peers, which are also vital at this time. During the adolescent years, teens experience Identity versus Role Confusion. Typically, adolescents feel they are on center stage and everyone is looking at them. They are often highly critical of themselves and feel that others are equally critical. Their thoughts often turn inward. They look at themselves and question whether or not they measure up to their peers. They also begin thinking about lifelong goals and careers, wondering whether they will make it in the world of the adult. Their ruthless self-appraisal is often beneficial. It results in the development of values, social attitudes, and standards. This inward focus appears to be necessary for the development of a firm sense of self and of broader roles in the social order. During the stage of Intimacy versus Isolation, adolescence is now behind the individual and the early adult years loom ahead. Energies are focused on building careers, establishing lasting social ties, and achieving then maintaining intimate relationships. Marriage or cohabitation creates new demands on the individual sharing, compromising, and relinquishing social mobility to some degree. Also, many young adults begin having children and raising families. Those who were unsuccessful in resolving their identity crises may find themselves isolated from mainstream society and unable to maintain healthy intimate relationships. It basically identifies the developmental interaction between maturational advances and the social  expectations made upon the child Ego identity is never established as an achievement,' as something static or unchangeable, but is a forever to-be-revised sense of reality of the Self within social reality (Erikson, 1968: 24, 211). Although the identity crisis is most pronounced during adolescence and gives that age its stage name, identity issues remain a lifelong concern. A redefinition of ones ego-identity emerges quite commonly when major role changes occur, such as when college freshmen leave home and have to make their own decisions, often for the first time. Other issues that tend to renew identity concerns are: ones first job, marriage, parenthood,  the death of ones parents, divorce, unemployment, serious illness, widowhood, and retirement. The ability to cope with these later identity issues that result from major changes in ones role in life may well depend on the degree of success with which one bas mastered the adolescent identity crisis. Adolescence bas been characterized by Erikson (1950) as the period in the human life cycle during which the individual must establish a sense of personal identity and avoid the dangers of rote diffusion and identity confusion. Identity achievement t implies that the individual assesses strengths and weaknesses and determines how he or she wants to deal with them. The adolescent must find an answer to the identity questions: Where did 1 come from? Who am I? What do 1 want to become?Identity, or a sense of sameness and continuity, must be searched for. Identity is not readily given to the individual by society, nor does it appear as a maturational phenomenon when the time comes, as do secondary sex characteristics. Identity must be acquired through sustained individual effort. Unwillingness to work actively on ones identity formation carries with it the danger of role diffusion, which may result in alienation and a sense of isolation and confusion. The search for an identity involves the establishment of a meaningfu1 self-concept in which past, present, and future are brought together to form a unified whole. Consequently, the task is more difficult in a historical period in which the anchorage of family and community tradition bas been lost and the future is unpredictable. ln a period of rapid social change, the aIder generation is no longer able to provide adequate role models for the younger generation. Mead (1970) describes in detail the changing relationship of adolescents to parents as societies move from post- to co- and pre figurative cultures  (see Chapter 6). Keniston (1965) bas even suggested that in a rapidly changing society, the search for an identity is replacing the socialization process, since the latter implies that there actually exist stable, uniform, socially defined scales and values into which the adolescent can be guided. The aider generation no longer provides effective role models to the younger generation in the process of searching for a personal identity. If the elders do provide them, adolescents may either reject them as personally inappropriate, or follow them-in what will later be discussed as a foreclosed fashion-that is, seeking to fulfil their parents aspirations for them, without appreciating the search for an identity as a personal opportunity. Thus, the importance of the peer group in helping the individual to answer the identity question, Who am I? cannot be emphasized enough. The answer to this question depends  on social feedback from others who provide the adolescent with their perception and their evaluation of him or ber. Identity is based on psychosocial reciprocity. Therefore, adolescents are sometimes morbidly, often curiously, preoccupied with what they appear to be in the eyes of others as compared with what they feel they are and with the question of how to connect to earl ier cultivated cales and skills with the ideal prototype of the clay (Erikson, 1959: 89). Adolescents preoccupation with the thinking of others is the basis of Elkinds (1967) theory of egocentrism. Since an identity can be found only in interaction with significant others, a process Erikson refers to as psychosocial reciprocity, the adolescent often goes through a period of a great need for peer group recognition and almost compulsive peer group involvement. Conforming to the expectations of peers helps adolescents find out how certain cales fit them, but peer group conformity can also createa new kind of dependencys, o that the individual accepts the values of others tao easily without really addressing the identity issue ofhow weIl they do fit him or ber. The peer group, the clique, and the gang, even the lover, aid the individual in the search for a personal identity since they provide bath a cole model and very personal social feedback. The seemingly endless telephone conversations during adolescencea nd later, the bull sessioni n college, can serveg enuine psychological purposes by providing this kind of personal information. As long as the adolescent depends on role  models and feedback, the in-group feeling that the peer group provides will remain quite strong. AIso, behaviors of conformity to the expectations of the peer group reflect the learned skill of not making oneself an easy target of catty remarks or to avoid being mock ed out. The ensuing clannishnessa and intolerance of differences-including petty aspects of language, gesture, hair style, and dress-are explained by Erikson as the necessacy defenses against the dangers of self-diffusion that remain prevalent as long as the identity bas not yet been achieved. Particularly during the time when the body image changes so rapidly, when genital maturation stimulates sexualf antasiesa, nd when intimacy with the opposite sexa ppearsa s a possibility with simultaneouslyp ositive and negative valencest,h e adolescent relies on peers for advice, comfort, companionship, and uses peers as a personal sounding board. Eventually, adolescents must free themselves from this new dependency on peers-which bas just replaced their dependency on parents-in order to find themselves, that is, to attain a mature identity. Such an identity, once found, gives the young adult a sense of knowing where one is going and an inner assuredness anticipated recognition  from those who count (Erikson, 1959: 118). Pubescence, according to Erikson, is characterized by the rapidity of body growth, genital maturity, and sexual awareness. Because these changes are qualitatively quite different from those experienced during childhood, an element of discontinuity from previous  development may emerge during early adolescence. youth is not only confronted with an internal physiological revolution that interferes with the easy establishment of a new body image, but also confronted with a psychological crisis that revolves around issues of identity and self-definition. Erikson maintains today that the study of identity bas become more important than was the study of sexuality in Freuds rime. For the searching adolescent, identity-the establishment and reestablishment of sameness with previous experiences and a conscious attempt to make the future a part of ones personal life plan-seems  to be subordinated to sexuality. Adolescents must establish ego-identity and lea rn to accept body changes as well as new libidinal feelings. Identity exploration depends at least in part on these psycho physiological factors. I

Fear and Hope in Marigolds :: Literary Analysis, Eugenia Collier

Eugenia Collier’s â€Å"Marigolds† is a memoir of a colored girl living in the Great Depression. The story does not focus on the troubles society presents to the narrator (Elizabeth), but rather is focused on the conflict within her. Collier uses marigolds to show that the changes from childhood to adulthood cause fear in Elizabeth, which is the enemy of compassion and hope. â€Å"Marigolds† is about change. Collier chose a â€Å"fourteen-going-on-fifteen† (1) year old girl because the transition from childhood to adulthood adds layers of conflict to the story. The initially obvious conflict is that of the woman and child inside Elizabeth. She represents the child when she pulls up the marigolds: â€Å"The fresh smell of early morning and dew-soaked marigolds spurred me on as I went tearing and mangling and sobbing† (5). She (as the child) is struggling inwardly against being a woman. At the end of her rampage, she is â€Å"more woman than child† (1), and the child in her loses the battle. As a woman, she wins â€Å"a kind of reality which is hidden to childhood† (5). The second conflict is also symbolic. Elizabeth represents fear. She has the feeling that â€Å" something old and familiar [is] ending and something unknown and therefore terrifying [is] beginning† (1). The marigolds represent hope. The reason for her â€Å"great impulse towards destruction† (4) was a combination of fear for the future and bitterness towards the past. In this conflict, fear wins because Miss Lottie â€Å"never [plants] marigolds again† (5). The third conflict is the most important. It takes place inside of Elizabeth and is also between fear and hope. At the end of the story, fear may win symbolically, but hope wins inside of Elizabeth: â€Å"In that humiliating moment I looked beyond myself and into the depths of another person. This was the beginning of compassion† (5). Not only does Collier use age to create depth of conflict, but she also uses Elizabeth’s attitude. The first conflict (the transition from childhood to adulthood) could stand by itself. If Collier had created an optimistic character it would not have allowed Elizabeth to have a struggle between fear and hope. By creating a pessimistic character, Collier shows that she is bitter and fearful. That is evident in her statement that her â€Å"hatred of [poverty] was still the vague, undirected restlessness of a zoo bred flamingo who knows that nature created him to fly free† (1).